inclusions, gems

Weibel provides a concise survey of the principal gemstones with particular emphasis on their mineral inclusions and what these reveal about gemstone formation. Rather than being solely an inclusion atlas, the book introduces the major gem species and relates their characteristic internal minerals and structures to their geological genesis. Numerous photomicrographs illustrate diagnostic inclusions and demonstrate their value for understanding the conditions under which their host gemstones crystallized. The volume was prepared with the assistance of Eduard J. Gübelin, who also supplied some of the photographs. It contains 83 color and 23 black-and-white illustrations. A contemporary Journal of Gemmology review specifically praises its treatment of inclusions and the accompanying explanations of their formation.

gems, corundum, synthetic corundum.7, Ramaura, flux, YAAG, synthetic garnet

Gübelin describes two recently introduced artificial gem materials: Ramaura flux-grown synthetic ruby and yttrium aluminium gallium garnet (YAGG), a green artificial material used as an imitation of tsavorite. For Ramaura ruby, he discusses manufacture by flux growth at about 1250°C, the use of chromium as the coloring agent, and the effects of flux constituents and growth conditions on crystal form. Because its conventional physical properties closely resemble those of natural ruby, identification relies heavily on microscopic examination; numerous characteristic inclusions are illustrated, while UV-visible spectroscopy is reported to offer no certain separation. The second material, YAGG, differs markedly from tsavorite in its physical properties, with refractive index around 1.90 and specific gravity 5.06–5.08. Gübelin describes its composition and characteristic yellowish flux inclusions and notes that, despite its garnet structure, it is not a silicate. The article contains 42 photographs and illustrations.

corundum, synthetic corundum.7, gems

Gübelin examines the identification of newly introduced Chatham flux-grown blue and orange synthetic sapphires and of natural sapphires whose color has been altered by heat treatment or surface diffusion. The physical properties of the Chatham synthetics differ little from those of natural sapphire, making microscopic examination particularly important. Blue Chatham sapphires may show irregular blue, yellow, and colorless zoning, straight or angular growth structures, polysynthetic twinning, coarse or delicate flux residues forming feathers, veils, nets, lace-like patterns, and misleading “fingerprints,” together with black platinum platelets, rods, splinters, and needles that reflect with a characteristic silvery metallic lustre; X-ray analysis confirmed the metallic inclusions as platinum. Some blue specimens also fluoresce intense pale green under long-wave ultraviolet radiation. Chatham orange sapphires range from brownish orange through orange-red to pinkish-orange “padparadschah” colors and likewise contain flux residues and platinum inclusions that provide important evidence of synthetic origin; ultraviolet absorption and electron-spin-resonance measurements are also investigated as possible means of separation from natural stones. Gübelin then discusses heat-treated natural sapphires, in which high temperatures may produce pockmarked surfaces, altered or melted mineral inclusions, circular tension fractures with lace-like rims, enhanced cloudy or phantom-like zoning, and fine exsolved particles producing turbidity. Diffusion-treated sapphires may additionally show strongly colored surface-reaching fissures and inclusions, irregular surface coloration, and concentrations of color along facet junctions and the girdle; immersion in a highly refractive liquid makes these features particularly conspicuous. Gübelin emphasizes that no single characteristic is universally diagnostic and recommends careful comparison of macroscopic appearance, physical properties, ultraviolet response, spectra, and especially microscopic inclusions when distinguishing natural, synthetic, heat-treated, and diffusion-treated sapphires.

inclusions, gems

Gübelin discusses mineral inclusions in colored gemstones from the standpoint of their genesis and the information they provide about the geological environment in which their host crystals formed. He distinguishes inclusions according to their relationship to the growth history of the host—pre-existing minerals incorporated during growth, minerals formed contemporaneously with the host, and minerals produced by later alteration or exsolution. Particular attention is given to the morphology, orientation and mineralogical identity of inclusions and to mineral associations characteristic of different geological environments. Such inclusion assemblages can provide evidence for the conditions and sequence of gemstone formation and, in favorable cases, assist in determining geographic origin. The article represents Gübelin’s broader approach of treating inclusions not merely as identification features but as records of gemstone genesis.

peridot, St. John’s Island, Egypt, gems, Classical world

Sinkankas: Account of a personal visit in 1980: geology, petrology, deposits, peridot & inclusions, chemistry, genesis,mineral associates, etc.- valuable firsthand information.

corundum, sapphire, color.4, inclusions.5, treatments.6, East Africa.12, Sri Lanka.12, Tanzania.12, gems

Investigates the causes of colour and identification of naturally coloured, irradiated and heat-treated yellow to orange-brown sapphires. Natural coloration is attributed to colour centres and/or trace elements, while irradiation and heating can produce comparable hues in colourless or pale yellow corundum. Both treatments generate colour centres associated with increasing absorption towards the blue end of the visible spectrum and a broad band near 465 nm. Irradiation-induced colours are highly unstable, whereas the heat-induced colour centres studied persist on reheating to 1000°C. Absorption spectra distinguish several colour mechanisms, although treated stones can closely resemble naturally pale yellow Sri Lankan sapphires. Heat-altered inclusions provide additional evidence of treatment.

chatoyancy, asterism, gems

Gübelin explains the optical principles responsible for chatoyancy (the cat’s-eye effect) and asterism (the star effect) in gemstones. He relates these phenomena to the reflection and scattering of light by numerous regularly oriented inclusions within a transparent or translucent host crystal. Parallel inclusions produce a single luminous band perpendicular to their orientation, giving the cat’s-eye effect when the stone is appropriately cut en cabochon. When inclusions occur in two or more intersecting crystallographic directions, the corresponding bands intersect to produce a star. The geometry and orientation of the inclusions, together with the orientation and shape of the cabochon, therefore determine the position and appearance of the optical effect.

taaffeite, Sri Lanka, gems

Gübelin describes “taprobanite,” a rare red gemstone from Sri Lanka initially thought to be taaffeite because of its similar appearance and gemological properties. Detailed examination showed it to represent a distinct member of the taaffeite mineral group, characterized by differences in chemical composition, crystallographic properties, and optical behavior. The study discusses its identification, physical and optical constants, absorption characteristics, inclusions, and relationship to taaffeite, emphasizing the difficulty of recognizing such rare stones by conventional gemological testing alone. The name derives from Taprobane, the ancient name for Sri Lanka.

corundum, inclusions.5, diamond, beryl, emerald, spectroscopy, gems

Dele-Dubois, Dhamelincourt, and Schubnel examine the application of Raman spectroscopy to the non-destructive identification of mineral inclusions in diamonds, sapphires, and emeralds. The technique permits inclusions to be analyzed in situ through the host gemstone by means of their characteristic Raman spectra, avoiding the need to extract or otherwise damage them. The authors demonstrate the usefulness of Raman spectroscopy for identifying very small inclusions that may be difficult to determine by conventional microscopy, illustrating its value both for gemological identification and for investigating the mineral assemblages trapped during gemstone formation.

diamond, inclusions, gems

Gübelin reviews the nature and significance of mineral inclusions in natural diamond, considering included minerals as evidence bearing on diamond formation and its geological environment. The paper surveys the principal types of mineral inclusions recognized in diamonds and discusses their mineralogical relationships and importance for understanding the conditions and processes of diamond genesis.