gems, jade, Fischer-Book, bibliography

A major eighteenth-century German biographical and bibliographical reference work compiled by Christian Gottlieb Jöcher. The Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexicon provides alphabetically arranged accounts of scholars and writers, giving biographical information together with lists or notices of their published works. Published at Leipzig in four volumes between 1750 and 1751, it covers authors from antiquity through Jöcher’s own time and became an important reference source for European intellectual and publishing history. For research into the history of gemology and mineralogy, it is particularly useful for identifying early authors, variant names, biographical details and bibliographical information concerning works cited in older scientific and lapidary literature.

gems, gemology, history of gemology, early lapidaries, glyptic, engraved gems, ruby, diamond, emerald, agate, topaz, sapphire, spinel, cameos, intaglios, rings

Sinkankas: The collection of Jean, chevalier De La Roque (1661–1745). Pp. 109–147: “Pierreries, Agates, Pierres gravées … [etc.].” Includes diamonds, rubies, emeralds, oriental topaz, sapphire, oriental amethyst, turquoise, balas ruby, hyacinth, and others, not to mention the engraved gems (cameos, intaglios, mounted in rings, and loose). Mentioned by Mariette, Traité des pierres gravées, I, 458.

gems, history of gemology, turquoise, lapis lazuli, carnelian, jasper, jade

Precious stones: These are those which are made valuable not only due to their rarity and beauty but also because nature has adorned them with a special light and radiance, making them, in a sense, noble—so that they sparkle like the finest stars and have always maintained a higher status than gold or silver. There are two types of precious stones: transparent and opaque. The transparent ones include amethyst, beryl, carbuncle, chrysolite, diamond, hyacinth, ruby, sapphire, and emerald. Among the opaque ones, though some are semi-transparent, are agate, carnelian, chalcedony, jasper, the so-called cat’s eye, lapis lazuli, nephrite, and gallstone, malachite and schreckstein, onyx, opal, turquoise, etc. These precious stones, especially the transparent ones, originate from water or moisture impregnated with mountain salt, which allows them to grow and develop into crystals. It is impossible for something to be transparent that has not first been in liquid form. Dense substances such as silver and lead, when dissolved in separating water or other acidic liquids, can easily grow into transparent crystals. Similarly, one often finds completely clear water droplets inside the most beautifully grown crystals, and in the hardest stones in India, the finest gemstones. Moreover, that there is some mountain salt mixed in is evident from the geometric shape of the precious stones, which are clearly recognizable as having the same structure as salt and saltpeter, as the mined crystals and diamonds, which differ only in hardness, grow entirely angular, often even with veins and such deposits, so that one can clearly see how the salty components have been layered on top of each other. Their charming colors come from a delicate metallic sulfur, similar to metals found in mines: for example, carbuncle, ruby, garnet, and amethyst from a gold-sulfur; sapphire from the tincture of silver; emerald and chrysolite from the greenish-sulfuric nature of copper; topaz and hyacinth from the sulfurous substance of iron, etc. However, this sulfur in precious stones is very volatile, so much so that the colors resulting from it can easily disappear and evaporate in the fire. But since these gemstones, when broken, are often irregular, or unclean and blotchy, even the most beautiful and purest stones do not shine as brightly as when they are cut, whereby the multiple facets reflect and play the light that falls on the foil or diamond ink all the more toward the eye. Therefore, those skilled in this art are called gem cutters, and they practice a free craft; however, they have been regulated by a noble order in Nuremberg for more than 100 years.

gems, history of gemology, diamond, garnet, ruby, sapphire, emerald, pearl, high priest's breastplate, jade, lapis lazuli, jasper, malachite

Sinkankas: Utterly fascinating work in great detail and complexity, attempting to demonstrate the hand of God in every manifestation of the mineral kingdom. Lesser assembled an astounding fund of information culled from hundreds of ancient and modern sources and covering nearly every aspect of geology, mineralogy, paleontology, and gemology. So successful was he, and apparently so careful in his choices and interpretations, that the present work was very commonly quoted by later writers in earth sciences and mineralogy. It is divided into nine books, each with several parts and chapters. Book one explains fundamental interrelationships existing among the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Book two concerns the origin and formation of rocks and minerals. Book three treats occurrences or deposits of mineral materials, including gemstones. Book four discusses the properties of minerals and stones. Book five addresses “precious” and “non-precious” stones, with pp. 343–66 treating precious stones, though restricted to a limited number of the better-known species and varieties, the stones themselves being apportioned among transparent, translucent, and opaque kinds, i.e., diamond, ruby, garnet, hyacinth, sapphire, amethyst, emerald, topaz, opal, and chrysolite as transparent stones, and translucent stones such as carnelian, sard, and other varieties of chalcedony; opaque stones include turquoise, malachite, jasper, lapis lazuli, and jade. This book also contains descriptions of some famous diamonds and other large and valuable gems, as well as data on the precious stones mentioned in the Bible. Also among the stones in this book are those that display remarkable inclusions, fanciful portraits or scenes, fossils, and crystals, and other curious, if not marvelous, mineral materials. Book six treats architectural and monumental stones, and also includes brief discussions of engraved gems, seals, and ringstones, with pp. 832–46 describing and speculating on the true identities of the gemstones in the vestments and breastplate of the High Priest, suitably illustrated with diagrams showing their positions and identities. Book seven concerns the misuse of stones, ostentatious display of gemstones, superstitious belief in their powers, the use of birthstones and planetary stones, and other topics of this nature. Book eight treats artificial stones of all kinds, including gemstones. Book nine concerns “works of wonder” in stone, e.g., Lot’s wife turned into a pillar of salt!

gems, jade, amphibole jade, nephrite, Fischer

Wilhelm Bernhard Nebel’s Dissertatio inauguralis medica de lapide nephretico novo is an eighteenth-century medical dissertation devoted to a “new nephritic stone” and its reputed therapeutic action in disorders of the kidneys and urinary tract. The work examines the substance within the contemporary medical tradition of lapides nephritici, stones believed to prevent or alleviate renal complaints, and considers its nature and medicinal use. It is of particular interest to the history of gemology and medicine because it documents the continuing European investigation of so-called kidney stones at a time when the term nephritic stone could encompass materials distinct from the mineral later defined as nephrite. The dissertation thus provides evidence for the medical terminology and concepts from which the modern name nephrite ultimately developed.

corundum, history.1, gems

Jean de Thévenot’s Voyages en Europe, Asie et Afrique recounts his extensive travels during the mid-17th century through Europe, the Ottoman Empire, Egypt, the Holy Land, Persia, and India. Based substantially on firsthand observations, the work describes geography, peoples, religions, customs, cities, natural products, commerce, transportation, and political conditions across the regions visited. Thévenot’s travels in Persia and India are particularly valuable for their descriptions of contemporary trade and luxury commodities. Of gemological interest are references to diamonds, pearls, precious stones, mines, jewelry, and the commerce in gems, including observations on Indian and Persian sources and markets. The passage in Vol. 5, p. 297, contributes to the work’s documentation of precious materials and their trade, making Thévenot an important European eyewitness source for the Asian gem trade of the 17th century.

gems, turquoise, odontolite, Persia

René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur’s paper is an early scientific investigation of French turquoise deposits and the origin of turquoise color. He describes the occurrence and working of turquoise-bearing material, examines specimens and their physical characteristics, and investigates the substance responsible for their blue and green coloration. Of particular gemological importance is his recognition that some material sold as turquoise consisted of fossil bone or teeth whose original substance had been altered and colored by mineral solutions—the material later known as odontolite or “bone turquoise.” The paper represents an important early attempt to distinguish true turquoise from visually similar materials through observation and experiment and contributes to the developing scientific understanding of gemstone composition, coloration, and imitation in the early 18th century. Sinkankas: Established that certain so-called turquoises (odontolites) were actually stained fossil teeth.

corundum, sapphire, history.1, Bible, gems

Johann Wilhelm Baier’s De Sapphiro Scripturae is an early 18th-century Latin dissertation examining the “sapphire” mentioned in biblical scripture. The work considers passages containing sapphirus and related terms, drawing upon biblical texts, classical authorities, linguistic evidence, and contemporary knowledge of precious stones in an attempt to determine the identity and properties of the stone intended by ancient writers. Of particular interest to historians of gemology is its treatment of the difficulties involved in correlating ancient gemstone names with modern mineral species, especially the long-standing question of whether the biblical sapphire represented modern sapphire, lapis lazuli, or another blue stone. The dissertation illustrates the intersection of biblical scholarship, philology, mineralogy, and traditional lapidary literature in the early 18th century.

gems, jade, Fischer-Book, lapis nephriticus, nephrite, medicine, medicinal use of gems

Christian Menzel’s De jaspide antinephritico is a short medical-mineralogical notice concerning the so-called “anti-nephritic jasper,” a stone believed to possess therapeutic properties against ailments of the kidneys and urinary tract. Menzel discusses the material within the early modern European tradition of lapis nephriticus, in which certain stones—particularly jade-like materials brought from the Americas and Asia—were worn or otherwise employed as remedies for renal complaints. The article is of particular interest to historians of gemology because it documents the medical reputation, identification, and use of ornamental stones associated with nephrite before jade was recognized mineralogically as a distinct material. It illustrates the close relationship between mineralogy, medicine, commerce, and traditional lapidary beliefs in the late 17th century.

gems, gemology, lapidary

Abraham Gemma’s Gemma magica oder magisches Edelgestein is a late 17th-century German lapidary devoted to the natural, medicinal, occult, and magical properties traditionally attributed to precious stones. The work discusses various gems and minerals, their supposed virtues and effects, and their uses as remedies, amulets, and talismans, drawing upon classical, medieval, and early modern lapidary traditions. It reflects a period in which empirical observations of gemstones coexisted with astrology, sympathetic magic, medicine, and beliefs concerning their supernatural powers. The work is of particular interest to historians of gemology as evidence for the persistence of traditional gem lore in early modern Europe and for the changing relationship between mineralogy, medicine, magic, and the emerging experimental sciences.