jade, jadeite, fei cui, nephrite, amber, quartz, tourmaline, coral, gems, Indian lapidary

Jade is a popular name for various tough, compact ornamental stones ranging in color from nearly white to deep green, long used in tools, ornaments, and decorative objects, but scientifically restricted to the minerals jadeite, nephrite, and the iron-rich jadeite variety chloromelanite. Though chemically distinct, jadeite and nephrite share many physical traits—both are hard, compact, usually fibrous, translucent, capable of high polish, and exhibit a characteristic sheen. Jadeite, a sodium-aluminum silicate of the pyroxene group, sometimes contains iron, calcium, and magnesium, with chloromelanite having up to 10% iron. Typically found as a massive aggregate of fibres or granules, jadeite has a hardness of about 7 and a specific gravity of 3.33, melting easily to a clear glass and resisting hydrochloric acid unless pre-fused. Its colors vary widely, though shades of white and green predominate, with prized tones like pale lavender and emerald green, the latter known as fei-ts’ui in Chinese. Nephrite, a calcium-magnesium silicate of the amphibole group, identical in composition to tremolite and actinolite but structurally different, is a dense mat of fine fibres, never found as discrete crystals. With a hardness of 6.5 and specific gravity around 3.0, it melts to a greenish glass and is acid-resistant. Its colors also vary but tend toward darker greens, with white more common than in jadeite, though rarely pure, and with occasional faint greenish, bluish, grayish, or pale yellow tones. The close resemblance between jadeite and nephrite has led to their common classification as jade, though accurate distinction often requires detailed chemical and microscopic analysis, especially when both occur together through metamorphic transformation. Despite jade’s ancient use, known in situ sources are few, with most material recovered from secondary deposits. The most studied jadeite locality is in Upper Burma’s Kachin region, while India and Tibet are said to contain jade but lack verifiable quarry evidence. Jadeite from Mesoamerica is distinctly different and may yet be found in situ. Nephrite is more widely distributed, with primary sources in the Kunlun Mountains of Turkistan, long known and studied, and occurrences in Siberia, Switzerland, France, Alaska, British Columbia, Washington, New Zealand, and New Caledonia. European finds have mostly been boulders, with confirmed in situ deposits only since the late 19th century. Jade’s toughness and beauty made it highly valued in prehistoric tools and ornaments worldwide, evident from finely made axes, adzes, and pendants found across Europe, Asia, and the Americas, with China, Central America, and New Zealand contributing iconic forms like the hei-tiki. China, above all, revered jade as the supreme precious material, used in ancient rituals and praised for its tactile and aesthetic qualities. The Chinese tradition emphasized carving, particularly in floral and symbolic motifs, often for imperial use, with designs reflecting strict sumptuary codes. India introduced the practice of embedding jade with gems, creating luxurious pieces during the Mongol empire, combining delicate carving with rubies, emeralds, and enamel. The artistic elegance of these and simpler forms highlights jade’s enduring appeal. Modern jade work continues, notably in Europe and Russia, with examples such as a Paris-cut paper knife from New Zealand nephrite and elaborate imperial Russian vases demonstrating the material’s ongoing artistic potential.

corundum, history.1, geology.11, gems

Burton’s The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night, his translation of the Arabian Nights, contains numerous references to precious stones, jewelry, and fabulous treasures reflecting the luxury and gem lore of the medieval Islamic world. The cited passages in Vols. 5 and 6 include descriptions of gems and jeweled objects embedded in tales of merchants, rulers, magical adventures, and extraordinary wealth. Diamonds, rubies, emeralds, pearls, and other precious materials appear both as commodities of immense value and as components of magnificent ornaments and treasures, while some passages preserve traditional beliefs concerning the sources and properties of stones. Burton’s extensive notes supplement the tales with linguistic, historical, geographical, and ethnographic commentary, often explaining Arabic and Persian names for gems and contemporary practices connected with their trade and valuation. For gemological research, these passages are valuable primarily as literary and cultural evidence for the terminology, symbolism, commerce, and popular conceptions surrounding precious stones in the Arabic and Persian traditions transmitted through the Thousand Nights and a Night.

corundum, USA.12, North Carolina.12, Montana.12, gems

The value of rough gems produced in the U.S. decreased from $312,050 in 1892 to $264,041 in 1893, mainly due to financial depression. Notable discoveries include a 3+ carat diamond in Wisconsin and small rubies in North Carolina. American turquoise sales reached $143,136, surpassing Persian mines’ annual sales. Diamond Industry: Several diamond discoveries were made in the U.S., including a 3+ carat diamond in Wisconsin and small diamonds in North Carolina and California. Diamonds were found in meteorites, specifically the Canyon Diablo meteorite, confirming their presence through cutting experiments. The diamond-cutting industry in the U.S. employed 236 people in 1889, with significant importation of rough diamonds. Other Gemstones: Sapphires from Montana were actively sold, with efforts to introduce them into the London market. Rubies found in North Carolina were of good color and quality. Turquoise mining was highly successful, with significant production and sales. Tourmaline discoveries in Maine and California yielded valuable gems. Emerald mining in Colombia continued to be profitable, with significant production and export. Artificial Precious Stones: Experiments by Thomas Edison and the Cowles Electric Smelting and Aluminum Company to produce artificial rubies, sapphires, and diamonds were unsuccessful due to issues like bubbles and lack of genuine diamond production. Other Minerals: Moss agate, hydrolite, dumortierite, opal, staurolite, jadeite, lapis lazuli, labradorite, and other minerals were found and mined in various locations across the U.S., with varying degrees of success and market value. The report provides a comprehensive overview of the mineral and gemstone industry in the U.S. during 1893, highlighting significant discoveries, production data, and market trends.

fiction, India, gems

Kipling and Balestier’s novel follows Nicholas Tarvin, an ambitious American from the fictional town of Topaz, Colorado, who travels to the Indian state of Rhatore in pursuit both of his fiancée, Kate Sheriff, and of a fabulous jeweled necklace known as the Naulahka. Kate has gone to India to work as a nurse, while Tarvin hopes to obtain the necklace and use it to advance his commercial schemes at home. The story contrasts American enterprise and optimism with the authors’ portrayal of princely India, combining romance, adventure, political intrigue, and descriptions of court life. Of particular gemological interest is the Naulahka itself, a legendary state necklace composed of extraordinarily valuable diamonds, rubies, emeralds, and other gems, whose history, appearance, and attempted theft form a central element of the plot. The novel provides a late nineteenth-century literary portrayal of Indian royal jewels and the fascination they exercised upon Western observers.

gems, Ceylon, Sri Lanka, gem minerals, natural history

Hensoldt recounts observations made during two years of travel in Ceylon beginning in 1875, with particular attention to natural history, geology, religion, and the island’s gem deposits. He describes the central highlands as composed chiefly of ancient metamorphic rocks, including garnetiferous gneiss, and attributes the alluvial gem deposits to weathering of these rocks and subsequent transport by mountain streams. He identifies the Kalu Ganga and Ratnapura as the center of the native gem trade and describes the buried “gem gravel,” from which rubies, sapphires, topazes, cat’s-eyes, garnets, and cinnamon-stones were recovered; he states that diamond was unknown from the island. Hensoldt also provides an eyewitness description of the Temple of the Tooth at Kandy, including reliquaries decorated with large pearls, uncut rubies, sapphires and emeralds, and an enormous hollowed star sapphire said to have been found near Adam’s Peak. He discusses the contemporary gem trade and demand among Indian princes and records the reopening of the Puttalam pearl fishery, where more than 7,000 baskets of oysters were landed during a six-week season.

corundum, Burma.12, Mogok, gems

The article describes the ruby mines of Burma at a moment when British occupation had generated considerable interest in their potential value, drawing largely upon a contemporary account in the London Times together with earlier descriptions by Tavernier, Father D’Amato, and Bredemeyer. Tavernier located the principal workings at Kyat-pyen and reported rubies, spinels, sapphires, and other gems, while noting that fine large rubies were scarce and that the Burmese king reserved the best stones. D’Amato, who visited about 1830, described gem-bearing gravel reached by pits 20–30 feet deep, with mining hindered by water; rubies, sapphires, “topaz,” “oriental emeralds,” and abundant spinels were reported, while valuable stones belonged to the king and some were smuggled out through Chinese and Tartar merchants. More recent reports stated that most rubies weighed less than a quarter carat and that larger stones were generally flawed. Fine sapphires, although rare, were reportedly found weighing 9–13 carats, and the royal monopoly yielded about £15,000 annually in 1856. The Times correspondent remained skeptical that British control and improved mining machinery would necessarily make the deposits highly profitable, citing experience in India and Ceylon as grounds for caution. [97–98]

corundum, ruby, sapphire, history.1, quality, gems, glyptic, engraved gems, collection, comparanda, catalogue, jade cameo

Sinkankas: As in the first edition, the history chapter (pp. 1–133) is the lengthiest. It is followed by sections on famous rings and signets, cabinets of gems, descriptions of plates, and the catalog of artists. There are many changes and additions: the poem of Christodorus is omitted; the plates are entirely new, although in most cases the same gems are illustrated, now classified as Assyrian, Parthian, Sassanian, Indo-Sassanian, Sassanian-Christian, Egyptian, Gnostic, Christian, Phoenician, Etruscan, Greek, etc., with plates illustrating the Apotheosis of Augustus cameo and several other very large cameos, as well as Roman, Medieval, and Renaissance gems. Among the plates are a cameo of jade from Mexico and the “Emerald Vernicle,” or representation of Christ. Another issue differed in omitting the folding frontispiece and substituting the plate formerly tipped in to face p. [1]; the text description, however, was not altered, and the plate itself still bears the note stating that it is to face that page. As usual, both versions appear most commonly in poor condition.

gems, beryl, emerald, Colombia, Chivor

Restrepo discusses measures taken by the Spanish government to encourage mining in the territory that later became the United States of Colombia. He draws attention to official efforts to develop mineral resources and promote mining activity, placing these initiatives within the historical development of the Colombian mining industry. The brief article provides contemporary historical commentary on Spanish colonial mining policy and its role in the exploitation of Colombia’s mineral wealth.

corundum, ruby, sapphire, history.1, India.12, gems, Indian lapidary

Sinkankas: Richard von Garbe’s complete work is reproduced in facsimile, including the original title page, and centers on his discovery and translation of a significant Sanskrit treatise on minerals by the Kashmiri physician Narahari. Despite the general absence of Sanskrit monographs on minerals, Garbe uncovered Narahari’s work, a section of the larger encyclopedic text King of Dictionaries, written between 1235 and 1250 AD. The translated extracts are organized into three categories: metals, non-metals, and precious stones, the last of which spans pages 70 to 91 in the German edition. This section includes discussions on the nine classical gemstones of Indian tradition—ruby, pearl, coral, emerald, topaz, diamond, sapphire, hyacinth, and cat’s-eye—as well as other stones like rock crystal, sunstone, moonstone, lapis lazuli, and turquoise. Each entry provides Indian synonyms, medicinal uses, and notes on color and quality, along with astrological associations. Garbe relied extensively on Tagore’s Mani Mala, though he acknowledged its shortcomings and urged cautious use. His translation remains a valuable contribution to early Indian gemological literature and a crucial supplement to Tagore’s work.

corundum, inclusions.5, gems

A detailed continuation of Isaac Lea’s earlier studies of microscopic inclusions in gemstones and minerals. Drawing on an enlarged personal collection, Lea examines cavities, fluid inclusions and minute enclosed crystals in sapphire, ruby, spinel, emerald, beryl, zircon, moonstone and other gem materials. Of particular importance is his observation that fine sapphires commonly contain abundant acicular crystals and cavities; he relates the oriented needles directly to the intersecting bands that produce the star in asteriated corundum. He also describes inclusions in North Carolina corundum, Ceylon sapphires and spinels, emeralds containing fluid-filled cavities with enclosed cubic crystals, and other distinctive internal features, illustrating many of them on two plates. The paper is an important early contribution to gemstone microscopy and to the recognition of inclusions as diagnostic evidence of a gem’s internal structure and growth history.