India.12, Burma.12, corundum, ruby, sapphire, gems

Holland’s annual report summarizes the work of the Geological Survey of India during 1908, including administration, publications, museum and laboratory activities, mineralogy, petrology, palaeontology, stratigraphy, economic geology, and investigations throughout India and Burma. [3–70] Of particular gemological interest is the review of mineral production: the value of jadestone rose markedly from £49,643 in 1907 to £73,400 in 1908, while ruby, sapphire, and spinel fell from £98,258 to £47,954. Holland attributes the latter decline partly to the failure of the Kashmir sapphire workings to repeat the valuable discoveries of 1907, but chiefly to restricted sales from the Burma Ruby Mines district because of depressed gem markets in Europe and America. Diamond production similarly declined from £2,784 to £940, while amber fell slightly from £385 to £364.

corundum, ruby, Burma.12, gems

Colquhoun’s autobiographical travel narrative recounts a career spanning India, Burma, Siam, China, South Africa, the United States, and Central America, combining personal reminiscence with observations on colonial administration, commerce, transport, politics, and exploration. The early chapters describe his family background, his father’s service in India and Afghanistan, and Colquhoun’s own experiences in India and Lower Burma. Particularly important are his accounts of a mission to Siam in 1879, including Bangkok, King Chulalongkorn, the journey to Zimmay (Chiang Mai), the Shan States, Buddhism, missionary activity, and disputes concerning frontier forests. He subsequently explored southern China from Canton toward Yunnan and Bhamo and became a strong advocate of improved communications linking Burma, Siam, and China by caravan routes and railways. Later chapters cover his work as a correspondent during the Franco-Chinese conflict, his views on the annexation and administration of Upper Burma, service during the pacification of the country, and travels in South Africa associated with Cecil Rhodes and the early expansion into Mashonaland. Of particular gemological interest is his first-hand account of the Mogok Ruby Mines district after the British annexation of Upper Burma. He describes Mogok as an isolated mountainous mining region with a turbulent population and records the transfer of the mines to a syndicate headed by the London jeweller Edwin Streeter, together with problems of illicit ruby mining and smuggling and the administrative controversies surrounding the nearby Momeit district. The book thus provides valuable contemporary recollections of late nineteenth-century Burma and Siam as well as an eyewitness perspective on the political and commercial circumstances surrounding the early British administration of the Mogok ruby mines.

corundum, ruby, sapphire, Thailand.12, Cambodia.12, gems

Turpin’s History of the Kingdom of Siam, originally published in French in 1771 and here translated by B.O. Cartwright, presents an eighteenth-century European account of Siam from its early kings through the destruction of Ayutthaya and the rise of Phya Tak (Taksin). Drawing largely upon reports of Catholic missionaries and earlier European writers, it gives particular attention to the reign of King Narai, Constantine Phaulkon, Siam’s relations with France under Louis XIV, the Macassar revolt, the overthrow of Phaulkon and expulsion of the French, and subsequent persecution of Christians. The most important later sections describe Burmese invasions, the capture and destruction of Ayutthaya in 1767, the sufferings of its inhabitants and European residents, and the political fragmentation and recovery that followed under Phya Tak. The final chapters broaden into descriptions of Siam’s neighboring kingdoms and an argument for renewed French commercial involvement in the region. Of gemological interest are numerous contemporary statements on mineral resources and the precious-stone trade. Burma and Ava are described as producing exceptionally fine rubies and sapphires, while Pegu exported gold, silver and precious stones, with “rubies” used broadly to include topaz, sapphire, amethyst and other gems. Laos is said to possess a mine yielding rubies and emeralds, including a celebrated royal emerald reputedly the size of an orange; Cambodia is credited with amethyst, ruby, topaz, chrysolite, agate and bloodstone; and Siam itself is reported to contain agate, diamonds and pearls. The work is valuable both as a near-contemporary European narrative of the political upheavals that ended the Ayutthaya kingdom and as a record of eighteenth-century European beliefs concerning the geography, commerce and gem resources of mainland Southeast Asia.

jade, nephrite, Xinjiang, Khotan, Hotan, China, Chinese jade, gems

A monumental report on Stein’s first expedition to Chinese Turkestan in 1900–1901, presenting the archaeological, geographical and historical results of his explorations in the ancient kingdom of Khotan and surrounding regions. The first volume gives detailed accounts of sites such as Yotkan, Dandan-Uiliq, Niya, Endere and Rawak, together with descriptions of manuscripts, coins, sculptures, paintings, textiles and other antiquities; the second consists of photographic plates, plans and a large map of the Khotan territory. Of particular gemological interest are Stein’s observations on Khotan jade, including the recovery of nephrite from the Yurung-kash and Kara-kash rivers, traditional methods of searching the river gravels, and the historical importance of jade as one of Khotan’s principal exports to China. The work greatly expands upon the preliminary and popular accounts of his expedition and remains a fundamental source for the archaeology, geography, trade and material culture of the southern Tarim Basin, as well as for the historical setting of the celebrated Khotan jade deposits.

sailing, Thailand, gems

A wide-ranging study of traditional sailing craft in Europe and Asia, based largely on vessels Smyth had personally observed, sailed or examined during extensive travels. Rather than merely cataloguing boat types, he considers how hull form, rig, sail plan and construction evolved in response to local winds, waters, available materials and particular commercial requirements. The Asian sections are especially extensive, treating craft of India and the Indian Ocean, Burma, the Malay Peninsula, Siam, Indo-China and China, from small river and coastal boats to large rice boats and Chinese junks. Numerous drawings, plans and diagrams document construction and rigging, while Smyth frequently compares surviving Asian forms with ancient vessels and discusses their historical development. Although not specifically gemological, the work provides useful contemporary background on the indigenous transport systems and waterways through which commodities moved in South and Southeast Asia at the beginning of the twentieth century.

Gems, corundum, Burma.12, gold, silver, diamond

A popular survey of mining throughout the world, written for the general reader and describing the extraction of gold, silver, diamonds, coal, iron, copper, tin, mercury and other mineral resources. Of particular gemological interest is Chapter XXII, “The Burma Ruby Mines” (pp. 358–366), which summarizes the history of the Mogok ruby district and the methods then employed to recover rubies from the gem-bearing gravels. Williams describes both traditional workings and the more organized operations of the Burma Ruby Mines, Limited, including excavation, washing and sorting of the ruby-bearing material. The chapter provides a useful contemporary overview of Mogok at the beginning of the twentieth century and places ruby mining alongside the major mining industries of the period. The book is illustrated with 24 plates and is valuable as a readily accessible contemporary account of mining technology and practice worldwide.

India, Asia, travel, gems

An edited account of John Jourdain’s travels during the English East India Company’s Fourth Voyage, describing his experiences between 1608 and 1617 in Arabia, India and the Malay Archipelago. Jourdain records local geography, customs, political conditions and, above all, the commodities and trading practices encountered at ports and commercial centers along his route. Of gemological interest is his description of a mountain near Sana’a where cat’s-eyes, agates, bloodstones and other stones “of better value” were found, and his account of Mocha as a major entrepôt receiving “precious stones of all sorts” from Indian shipping, which were purchased by merchants connected with Cairo and subsequently carried into the Mediterranean and Ottoman trading network. He also notes that the country associated with Dabhol produced diamonds in “great store of the new rock,” together with other stones of lesser value. Beyond these specific references, the journal provides valuable firsthand evidence for the commercial routes linking western India, Arabia and Southeast Asia during the formative years of English participation in the Asian trade. Foster’s edition includes extensive historical notes, contemporary supplementary narratives, maps and a bibliography.

corundum, Burma.12, India.12, Kashmir.12, quality.10, gems

Holland reviews the mineral production of India from 1898 to 1903, summarizing the principal mineral industries and changes in output and value during the period. Of particular gemological interest are his discussions of precious stones, including diamonds, rubies, sapphires, and other gem materials. The ruby industry of Upper Burma receives attention, with production centered on the Mogok Stone Tract and conducted both through organized mining enterprises and native workings; Holland comments on production, values, and the difficulties of assessing an industry in which much material passed through private channels. Sapphire production in Kashmir is also discussed, including the famous deposits and their comparatively limited and irregular output. Diamond production remained small and was derived chiefly from traditional Indian workings. The review provides useful contemporary statistical and economic information on India’s gem-mining industries at the beginning of the twentieth century and places them within the broader mineral economy of British India.

corundum, India.12, Burma.12, Tajikistan.12, Sri Lanka.12, history.1, jade, gems

One of the most fascinating books about the Orient ever written. If you’ve ever wondered about the derivation of words like “pajamas,” “assassins” or “looters,” this is the book for you. A total classic and now quite scarce. A celebrated historical and etymological glossary of Anglo-Indian words, place names, and expressions, drawing extensively on early European and Asian travel literature. Of particular gemological interest are entries tracing the terminology and geography of the Asian gem trade. “Balass” is identified as the rose-red spinel and derived from Balakhshī/Badakhshī, referring to the celebrated spinel-producing region of Badakhshan on the upper Oxus; quotations from Ibn Battuta, Clavijo, Barbosa, Frederick, Hawkins, Fryer, and others document the term’s changing forms and usage. “Capelan” preserves early European accounts of the Burmese ruby-mining region, with quotations from Ca’ Masser, Varthema, Barbosa, and Tavernier showing the confused geographical knowledge surrounding the sources of Pegu and Ava rubies; the editors associate the name tentatively with the Mogok-area mines. The entry on “Corundum” discusses the Indian origin of the word, comparing Hindustani, Deccani, Telugu, Tamil, and Sanskrit forms and noting its historical use for non-gem corundum. Other entries on Ava, Ceylon, Coromandel, and Tenasserim provide detailed historical geography valuable for interpreting early accounts of the Southeast Asian gem trade; notably, Ceylon is discussed as the ancient Ratnadvīpa, “Isle of Gems,” and in Arabic tradition as an “Isle of Rubies.” The work remains an important source for understanding how gem names, mining localities, and trade terminology were transmitted and often distorted in European literature on India and Southeast Asia.

gems, turquoise, Iran, Persia, Nishapur

Stuart devotes much of his chapter on Meshed and Bushire to a detailed description of the Nishapur turquoise mines, drawing explicitly on information supplied by General Schindler. He locates the mines in the Bâr-i-Meidan district northwest of Nishapur and describes their geography, villages, population, individual workings, mining conditions, production, classification, cutting, valuation, and trade. Numerous named mines are discussed, including workings that were dangerous, flooded, poorly ventilated, collapsed, or exhausted, together with differences in the quality and color stability of their turquoise. Of particular gemological interest is his description of material from the Sar-i-Reîsh and Anjîrî mines, which could possess an attractive color while moist but faded on drying, becoming greenish, spotted, or eventually nearly white. Such stones were reportedly shipped to Europe in damp earthenware vessels, and Stuart attributes declining European confidence in turquoise and falling prices partly to the influx of this unstable material. He contrasts these deposits with the Khâkî workings in accumulated mine debris and alluvium, which were then producing many of the finest stones, including valuable ring-quality turquoise. Mining employed picks, crowbars, and increasingly gunpowder, although blasting was considered detrimental because it shattered turquoise that older hand-working methods might have recovered intact. Stuart gives an unusually detailed contemporary classification of Nishapur turquoise into three commercial categories: Angushtarî, comprising fine, stable-colored stones suitable for rings and sold individually; Bârkhaneh, divided into grades and sold by weight; and Arabî, encompassing inferior pale, greenish, spotted, or otherwise undesirable material. Deep sky blue was most prized, but value also depended upon shape, freedom from flaws, permanence of color, and an indefinable quality termed zât, which Stuart compares with the “water” of a diamond or the luster of a pearl. He describes several traditional cuts, including the high peikânî form reserved for fine deep-colored stones, cabochons, and flat slabs, and notes the practice of disguising flaws in large stones with gold scrollwork or strategically positioned inscriptions. The account also traces the commercial chain from miners through village Rîsh-i-Safîds and commission agents to Meshed dealers and ultimately European markets, particularly Moscow, showing how a stone could increase enormously in value after cutting and successive resale. Annual production from the mines, mountains, and surface diggings is estimated at 25,000 tomans at mine value, perhaps tripling by the time the turquoise reached its final purchasers. Stuart’s chapter thus provides an exceptionally detailed early twentieth-century account of Nishapur turquoise mining, quality grading, color stability, cutting, valuation, marketing, and the economic organization of the trade.