gems, jade, China, Chinese jade carving, Chinese lapidary arts, quartz, amethyst, smoky quartz, aventurine

The first of two separately published parts dealing with the mineral products employed by the Japanese and Chinese in older, traditional arts and industries; they are considered highly important sources of authentic information and were much referenced in later publications. In the large section on carbon, diamond finds a place on pages 201–203, and here Geerts gives its names in phonetic equivalents as well as in the native ideographs, then cites authorities for the same and gives a discussion of its uses by the Japanese and the Chinese. In similar manner, under the heading of “Silicium,” he gives crystalline and cryptocrystalline varieties of quartz, pp. 241–247, including rock crystal, sagenite, smoky quartz, amethyst, rose quartz, citrine, cat’s-eye quartz, aventurine, and others, as well as numerous varieties of chalcedony, and at the end includes opal. An appendix to this section, pp. 272–294, describes prehistoric stone implements and weapon points, including objects meant for personal adornment or as talismans. The plates depict recovery of arsenic, charcoal-burning, making soot, weapon points, implements, tools, and other stone objects. The last plate is a part-colored folding map of Japan showing the major mining districts, with colored spots indicating the minerals obtained. This part contains alabaster-gypsum, p. 329; marbles, pp. 332–335; ruby, pp. 358–362; obsidian, pp. 413–414; garnets, pp. 421–424; tourmaline, pp. 424–425; serpentines and steatites, pp. 434–440, including agalmatolite; meerschaum, p. 441; and ophitic serpentines, pp. 441–445. In the section entitled “Pierres précieuses,” pp. 452–482, appear discussions of jade varieties, including properties, use in medicines, etc., also red coral, several uncertainly identified stones, topaz, emerald, aquamarine, zircon, and sapphire. This work is cited and commented upon by Laufer in his Sino-Iranica (1919) and his treatises on turquoise and diamond; see also F. de Mély and M. H. Courcel, Les Lapidaires de l’Antiquité et du Moyen Âge, I, Lapidaires Chinois, especially in connection with a Chinese-Japanese encyclopedia containing a lapidary, reproduced in its original form in that volume along with translation and commentaries. Gemstones are discussed on pp. 178–188.

gems, beryl, emerald, history of emerald, history of gemology, emerald lore

Dutens and several others who have written upon gems and precious stones during the last two centuries have asserted that the ancients were unacquainted with the true emerald, and that Heliodorus, when speaking nearly two thousand years ago of gems green as a meadow in the spring, or Pliny, when describing stone of a soft green lustre, referred to the peridot, the plasma, the malachite, or the far rarer gem, the green sapphire. But the antiquary has come to the rescue with the treasures of the despoiled mounds of Tuscany, the exposed ashes of Herculaneum and Pompeii, and now exhibits emeralds which were mounted in gold two thousand years before Columbus dreamed of the New World, or Pizarro and his remorseless band gathered the precious stones by the hundred-weight from the spoils of Peru. Although these specimens of antique jewelry set with emeralds may be numbered by the score or more in the museums and reliquaries of Europe, but very few engraved emeralds have descended to us from ancient times. This rarity is not due to the hardness of the stone, for the ancient lapidaries cut the difficult and still harder sapphire: therefore we must believe the statement of the early gem-writers that the emerald was exempted from the glyptic art by common consent on account of its beauty and costliness.

gems, jade, jadeite, Guatemala, Mesoamerica, Aztecs, Mayans, Fischer

Sinkankas: An important early paper on the jades and jade-like green stones employed in ornaments and small carvings by the Indians of Mexico and Central America. He discusses the term “chalchihuitl” as used by early writers, possible synonymy, notes that the term “quetzalitztli” was applied to emerald, and referred to the brilliant green plumage of the quetzal bird, Trogon resplendens, and further noted the high esteem in which such green stones were held. Some early Spanish accounts are given, including one from Hernán Cortés. Suggests uses of the carved objects, the various minerals and rocks employed in their manufacture, and lapidary techniques. The types of objects include plaques, personal ornaments, lip plugs, hatchet blades, and small animal sculptures. The importance of this work is recognized by Heinrich Fischer, who comments at length upon it in Der Nephrit und der Jadeit, 1880, 263–271, which see.

corundum, history.1, properties.2, color.4, quality.10, engraved gems, gems, glyptic

Sinkankas: Remarkable and encyclopedic, this work presents several dozen essays on gemstones, including those mentioned by ancient writers and still imperfectly identified. Each essay offers insights into the properties, sources, ancient uses, and modern commercial significance of various gems, with major textual revisions and new material substantial enough to treat them as independent works. King was unfortunate in his choice of publisher, Bell and Daldy, who used exceedingly poor binding materials, causing most copies to disintegrate quickly with use. The book was reviewed in detail in Edinburgh Review (July 1866, pp. 228–260). The introductory essay explores ancient mineralogical knowledge and its development through modern times, drawing from numerous literary sources. The main text arranges gemstones alphabetically, followed by essays on pastes, the Orphic poem (pp. 375–398) with commentary, ancient jewelry, chemical analysis of gemstones, sales prices of notable precious stones, weights, designs of famous gems, and colored diamonds. Additional notes discuss engraved gems used by King to ornament his book. The plates are of special interest, depicting mineral crystal forms, outline drawings of famous diamonds, the Devonshire emerald crystal, and notable jewels. Despite its age and sometimes controversial opinions, the book is a delight to explore, offering much for those interested in unusual aspects of gemology. It is also worth noting that, like his work on Gnostics, this book exemplifies the fractionation and expansion process described by Adolf Furtwängler, leading to offshoots with related titles, sometimes mistakenly referred to as second editions."

gems, Brazil, diamond, topaz, gold, beryl, emerald, tourmaline, quartz, amethyst, Minas Gerais

Sinkankas: An outstanding and carefully researched work reflecting the author’s many years of practical experience in Brazil and involvement in the country’s mining industry. Although primarily concerned with gold, it contains an important section on gemstones (Part IV, pp. 345–446), covering diamonds, tourmaline, topaz, beryl, chrysoberyl, amethyst, euclase and other stones. It is among the earliest major works to provide a history of diamond and gemstone discoveries in Brazil, including the expeditions prompted by reports of emeralds, the subsequent discovery of diamonds, and the identification of supposed emeralds—reported from 1573 or earlier—as green tourmaline. It also describes Portuguese Crown regulations governing diamond mining and trade, reviews the diamond industry from 1749 to 1822 with production statistics, and discusses mining districts, administration, mining methods, diamond occurrences and crystal forms, specimens from the Serro do Frio in the Royal Cabinet, and the smuggling of gold and diamonds. A fundamental source for the history of Brazilian gold, diamond and gemstone mining.

gems, beryl, emerald, Egypt

Sinkankas: Jomard, the editor of the main work above, summarizes the importance of Cailliaud’s exploration in his introduction: “M. Cailliaud, favoured by a chance prize which fortune allotted him, discovered at Mount Zabarah the famous Emerald Mines, hitherto only known by passages in ancient authors, and from the recitals of the Arabs. Forgotten, as it were, during a lapse of centuries, the French voyager has retraced them, nearly in the same condition wherein the engineers of the Ptolomies left them. He has not only penetrated into subterranean cavities of a vast depth, but he has arrived at causeways, has collected tools, instruments, utensils of various kinds … [also] … he commenced the labours of the mines, and by dint of application and exertion, he is enabled to present to Mohammed Aly Pacha ten pounds of Emeralds.” The plates include a plan of the mining town of Sekket (Sikait) showing mines & buildings, a view of the town, a map of the desert region between the Nile River and the Red Sea, and several views of temples at Sikait. In addition to his descriptions of mines, ruins, etc., Cailliaud also gives an excellent mineralogy of the emerald deposits and the mode of occurrence of emerald crystals in the schistose rocks. Landmark in the history of Egyptian emerald.

gems, turquoise, turquoise identification, odontolite, Persia, Persian turquoise, Iran

An early mineralogical study by Gotthelf Fischer of two very different substances historically called turquoise. Fischer distinguishes “oriental turquoise,” which he regards as a true mineral, from “occidental turquoise” or turquoise odontolite, which he identifies as fossil tooth or bone colored by a copper compound. He proposes the name calaite for the mineral turquoise and discusses its occurrence, physical character and historical nomenclature, comparing it with Pliny’s descriptions of callais. Fischer notes that calaite occurs as rounded pieces in alluvial deposits rather than in a rocky matrix and discusses its resemblance to emerald and sapphire in ancient descriptions. The work is important in the history of gemology for its attempt to separate true mineral turquoise from odontolite and to reconcile contemporary mineralogical observations with the terminology of classical lapidary sources.

corundum, sapphire, Sri Lanka.12, India.12, chemistry.2, gems

Sinkankas: Corresponds to the first 2 vols of the German edition [of the Beiträge], and containing essays I-LXXII. In the first essay, Klaproth describes the results of subjecting numerous mineral substances to the intense heat of a porcelain fire," among them, feldspars, alabaster, marble, beryl (& emerald), tourmaline, quartzes, chrysoberyls, olivines, kyanite, opals, garnets, zircons, corundums, spinels, topazes, etc. Specific experiments and analyses on gemstones as follows: oriental sapphire, cat's-eye, chrysoberyl, chrysolite, olivine, lapis lazuli, zircon, spinel, Colombian emerald, oriental garnet, vesuvianite, leucite, staurolite, chrysoprase, Hungarian opal, hydrophane, common opals, meerschaum, Chinese agalmatolite, spessartine."

gems, history of gemology, chemical analysis, chemistry

An important methodological paper by Nicolas-Louis Vauquelin on the chemical analysis of stones and minerals, combining discussion of analytical procedures with results obtained from several mineral substances. Vauquelin considers the difficulties involved in decomposing minerals, separating their constituent earths and interpreting analytical results, illustrating the increasing reliance on chemistry for mineral identification at the end of the eighteenth century. The paper is significant to gemology because it reflects the emerging practice of distinguishing gemstones and related minerals by composition rather than by color, appearance or traditional names alone, and forms part of Vauquelin’s broader work on beryl, emerald, tourmaline, chrysolite and other gem materials.

gems, beryl, emerald, history of emerald, history of gemology, nomenclature

Emerald and beryl. I was occupied, at nearly the same time, in revising the articles relating to gemstones; and when I came to the emerald, I was struck anew by the great conformity of beryl with this substance, with regard to their hardness and specific gravity, and by the perfect identity presented by the figure and dimensions of their constituent molecules, and even by their secondary forms.¹ In truth, they had appeared to differ from one another only by refraction, which is double in the emerald, and which I had found to be simple in beryl. A very limpid prism of the latter substance had never given me more than a single image of objects, even when I viewed light placed at a distance of more than fifty toises. But recent investigations on double refraction in general led me to suspect that in every crystal possessing double refraction there exists one direction in which the image is sensibly simple, as Giovanni Battista Beccaria had already remarked concerning rock crystal. I first attempted to verify this suspicion by means of carbonate of lime, determining beforehand the manner in which one of the rhomboids known under the name Iceland spar should be cut so that, in a certain position of the eye, the two images would coincide into one. In this investigation I was guided by the knowledge acquired concerning the laws governing the double refraction of carbonate of lime, as I had explained elsewhere;² and experiment confirmed the result predicted by theory. Since analogous effects, obtained with other doubly refracting minerals, raised no doubts in my mind concerning those presented by the prism of beryl, I had a second prism cut in a different direction, and I observed that it doubled images, though only to a moderate degree; yet even in this it still approached the emerald. Thus, all the physical and geometrical characters concur in calling for the union of these two substances,³ and all that is now lacking is an analysis of beryl which, by its exactness, would deserve comparison with that which Martin Heinrich Klaproth gave for emerald, so that we may know what conclusion should be drawn from a rapprochement which mineralogy must not permit itself to make until it has obtained the consent of chemistry. The result that I have just announced will require precautions on the part of those who wish to determine whether the refraction of a mineral is simple or double. But since it seems to me that we now possess a rule for determining the direction in which only a single image is seen, it will be easy to avoid error. Theory will thereby have gained, and observation will be made more certain. ⸻ ¹ At that time beryl was known only in the form of the regular hexagonal prism, when observations made on several crystals of this gem which I had found in commerce, or had myself detached from a fragment of rock brought from Siberia, offered me a very marked rapprochement between the modifying facets on the summits of these crystals and those existing on varieties of emerald. See Journal des mines, no. XIX, p. 72. ² Mémoires de l’Académie des sciences, 1788, p. 34 ff.; Journal des Mines, Prairial, Year V. ³ Besides, the molecules here possess characters of regularity which might place them among the forms common to different substances. See Journal des mines, no. XIX, p. 72.