gems, beryl, emerald, Colombia, drug wars

Within the set of regional violence affecting Colombia, the case of the emerald region stands out for its forms, contents and relations with national phenomena such as smuggling, armed subversion, drug trafficking, paramilitarism and criminal organizations. In an area close to Bogotá, an illegal market grew from the 1960s onwards, linked to the trafficking and smuggling of emeralds, thanks to which certain groups accumulated large surpluses. The accumulation of capital around the illegal emerald market was an essential element in the configuration of the social, economic, political, and sociocultural dynamics of the department of Boyacá and the country, and at the same time created an economic circuit that fed back into the State through its institutions, making it difficult to demarcate between the legal and the illegal. The State enthroned the power of mafias, political and economic groups that redirected governmental action in favor of their interests. This book seeks to elucidate how this intertwining between the power of the State and the power of the actors in society manifested itself through the strategies to which they resorted. The book provides an analysis of the violent strategies deployed by the actors in the emerald zone, the municipalities of the region and cities such as Chiquinquirá and Bogotá. The tactics and methods used: murder, massacre, assault, and other forms characterized by cruelty, led to the creation of a scenario of terror and fear. The open struggle for territorial control, where the market materializes, generates a space of confrontation that drags not only the actors involved, but also the population of the region. This scenario is only possible under the understanding of the illegal economy and its mafia-like practices, a weak state that with its actions promoted the conflict. Social relations based on loyalty, subjective relations with the territory, the formation of power structures and relations of domination.

gems, beryl, emerald, gemology, origin determination, Colombia, Brazil, Zambia, Russia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, China, Zimbabwe

Emerald is a precious colored gemstone, and its origin has a significant impact on the evaluation of its value. The identification of the origin of emerald has become an important technology in gemstone laboratories and a research hotspot in the field of gemology. The inclusion, spectral characteristics, and chemical composition of emerald are commonly used and critical information for origin determination. However, with the accumulation of research data on the origin of emerald, traditional methods for origin determination are facing challenges. This article systematically summarizes and analyzes the gemological characteristics, inclusion information, spectral features, and major and trace element data of emeralds from various occurrences around the world. Based on a review of previous research results, it systematically elucidates the current research status of emerald origin determination, summarizes the gemological characteristics and inclusion characteristics, reveals the component fingerprint of emeralds from each occurrence, and uses case studies to illustrate the methods of distinguishing common and important origins of emeralds. Although the comparison at a global scale indicates that the inclusion varieties of emerald from different origins are mostly similar, with spectral convergence and significant overlap in component content ranges, novel approaches for origin determination are proposed based on inclusion frequency, UV–VIS–NIR spectral patterns, absorption patterns of HDO and D₂O, and the parameter selection of compositional diagrams.

gems, artificial glass, chrome chalcedony, emerald, beryl, non-destructive techniques, Roman jewellery

The study of gems in Roman-period jewellery from known archaeological contexts offers valuable insights into ancient gem trading routes, manufacturing and decoration techniques, and the popularity or association of specific gems with certain jewellery types. Accurate identification of these gems also enhances the museum’s ability to inform the public. In this study, 19 green-coloured gems embedded in 14 Roman jewellery pieces—dated between the first and fourth centuries CE and held by the Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki in Greece—were examined. Most of the pieces were discovered during rescue excavations in Roman cemeteries in western and eastern Thessaloniki, with one originating from Edessa in northern Greece. Non-destructive techniques such as optical microscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and Vis-NIR spectroscopy were employed, along with micro-EDXRF for chemical analysis. Seventeen of the samples were identified as natural emeralds resembling those from Egypt, while the remaining two were identified as a natural chrome chalcedony and an artificial glass. The origin of the artificial glass remains unknown, while the chrome chalcedony is tentatively linked to Turkey.

gems, emerald, beryl, Russia, Urals, Mariinsky, Kvartalny, Svetlinksy, inclusions, bavenite, pyrite, fluorite, gismondine-Ca, tobermorite, annite, columbite, Ta-NB rutile, muscovite, gahnite, calcite, quartz, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, siderite

In addition to the data of predecessors, the chemical composition of zoned or zoned-sectorial beryl crystals from pegmatites of the Mariinsky and Kvartalny deposits of the Urals emerald mines in the Central Urals, granitic pegmatite of mine no. 242 of the Ilmeny State Reserve and Svetlinsky pegmatite quarry in the South Urals is characterized using scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive analysis. The light peripheral zones of prism and pinacoid in crystal sections differ in variations in Al, Fe and Mg contents from the inner zones or areas. The presence of fractures and regenerated fragments of early beryl indicates synmineralization tectonics. In beryl from the Mariinsky deposit, the previously unknown syntactic ingrowths of bavenite and zones of parallel columnar aggregates of co-crystallization of beryl and bavenite, as well as late pyrite, fluorite, gismondine-Ca and tobermorite, are identified. Beryls from mine no. 242 of the Ilmeny State Reserve are yellowish-greenish and bluish with a peripheral white zone and syntactic microingrowths of annite and syngenetic inclusions of columbite and Ta-Nb rutile. Muddy bluish-white beryl regenerated by colorless beryl from the Svetlinsky quarry hosts numerous syntactic inclusions of muscovite, gahnite, calcite, quartz and quartz-muscovite microaggregates with pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, siderite, calcite, and micropores. The syntaxy of mica, quartz and gahnite with beryl is revealed for the first time. Keywords: beryl, zoning, composition, syntaxy, mineral inclusions, granitic pegmatites, Urals emerald mines, Ilmeny Reserve, Svetlinsky pegmatite quarry, Russia.

gems, antique gems, antique jewelry, engraved gems, glyptic, topaz, diamond, beryl, emerald, ruby

Monstrances, jewelries and ex voto represent the core of the ecclesiastic historical patrimony. Most of them, coming from the 18th century, are now stored and exposed in numerous Diocesan and Sacred Art Museum, which boast centuries of history and the property of unique objects. Refined designs, golden finishing and set gemstones give these objects a very precious appearance. But are these objects really valuable? Does the nature of the gemstones really correspond to the declared one? Often, the identification of a gem in this context is assigned according to autoptic observations and historical documents. No scientific studies are usually performed. Traditional techniques, indeed, do not allow to analyze set gems, which could be studied only with non-invasive instruments, better if portable directly in situ. Raman spectroscopy, coupled with portable X-ray Fluorescence (pXRF) could be considered well-suited analytical techniques for this purpose, but few are the examples of their application on these kinds of art and historical remains. With the aim of deepening the knowledge about the Sicilian production of ecclesiastic objects, confirming or not the declared gemstones identifications, a set of objects from the Diocesan Museums of Catania and Caltagirone (Italy) were studied by in situ portable Raman spectroscopy (with 785 nm excitation wavelength) and portable X-ray Fluorescence (XRF). The series of objects investigated included different monstrances with stylistic similarities and set gemstones, dated back to the 18th century; bishop’s adornments, as a miter with differently coloured gems, a pastoral ring with a large green stone surrounded by colourless ones (supposed to be an emerald and little diamonds) and a pectoral cross with light orange centimetric stones surrounded by colourless little ones (supposed to be topazes and diamonds). Furthermore, an ex voto ornament, used for the Immaculate Conception statue for a religious ritual in Caltagirone, was also extensively analysed. It is an elegant combination of jewellery parures sewn together on a textile bustier. Numerous reddish and pinkish gemstones are set, together with small colourless ones; moreover, a cameo appears at the centre of the jewel. According to a kind of traditional Sicilian production of European derivation in vogue, especially in the 18th century, the gems mentioned were supposed to be rubies and diamonds. Interesting results emerged from the analytical investigations. In some cases, precious gemstones, such as rubies, emeralds and diamonds, are detected together with quartz or garnet, while in some others the presence of precious gems must be discredited due to the identification of glass.

gems, emerald, quartz, plagioclase, sphalerite, sulfide, Ural emerald mines, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, galena, zinc greenockite, bismuthine, matildite, electrum, Mariinsky, Malyshev, Russia

A mineralogical study was carried out and the chemical composition of sulfide mineralization rare for the Ural emerald mines was studied. Previously, zinc greenockite and matildite were not described, so this is the first find of these minerals at the Mariinsky deposit.

beryl, emerald, phlogopite, betrandite, fissures, gems

gems, chrysoberyl, alexandrite, beryl, emerald, phenakite, Russia, Ural Mountains, Malysheva

Alexandrite was discovered in 1833 in the emerald mines of the Ural Mountains, Russia. Since then, numerous legends have been told about the discovery and naming of this first colour-change gem material. Key figures in these stories were L.A. Perovskii, vice president of the appanage department of the Russian Tsar and minister of Internal Affairs of the Russian Empire, and N.G. Nordenskiöld, superintendent of mines in Finland. Phenakite was also discovered in the Uralian emerald mines in the early 1830s, with the same two people involved. Based upon extant letters written by both individuals—Perovskii and Nordenskiöld—as well as the published literature, this article critically evaluates the facts about the discoveries and the initial descriptions of alexandrite and phenakite. Our research shows that a third individual, Y.V. Kokovin, who at that time was director of the Ekaterinburg lapidary works, actually discovered both gem materials, and soon after samples of each were distributed via Perovskii to various mineralogists for examination. The name phenakite was suggested by Nordenskiöld in late 1832 or early 1833, ignoring the local use of the already-existing name kokovinite. Nordenskiöld suggested the name alexandrite, in honour of the Russian Crown Prince, almost a decade later—in 1842—after Kokovin’s death.

gems, Afghanistan, Panjshir Valley, beryl, emerald, ruby, Jegdalek, lapis lazuli

Exploring Afghanistan in 2021 has become increasingly difficult. Just read the State Department guidelines before departure: “Do not travel to Afghanistan due to COVID-19, crime, terrorism, civil unrest, kidnapping, and armed conflict.” And now we have withdrawn. At the time of this travel, the advice included: “ON APRIL 27, 2021, THE DEPARTMENT ORDERED THE DEPARTURE FROM U.S. EMBASSY KABUL OF U.S. GOVERNMENT EMPLOYEES WHOSE FUNCTIONS CAN BE PERFORMED ELSEWHERE. TRAVEL TO ALL AREAS OF AFGHANISTAN IS UNSAFE… TERRORIST AND INSURGENT GROUPS CONTINUE PLANNING AND EXECUTING ATTACKS IN AFGHANISTAN… AT LOCATIONS FREQUENTED BY U.S. CITIZENS AND OTHER FOREIGN NATIONALS. THE U.S. EMBASSY’S ABILITY TO PROVIDE ROUTINE AND EMERGENCY SERVICES TO U.S. CITIZENS IN AFGHANISTAN IS SEVERELY LIMITED, PARTICULARLY OUTSIDE OF KABUL.” I know you’re asking yourselves why anyone would go to Afghanistan. For me, it’s an affection for the people of Afghanistan. I’ve been traveling there and exploring the remote mines for 50 years and have a strong attachment to the gem mining industry. I have a three-year contract with USAID/DAI “to advance the gemstone industry of Afghanistan and increase its exports of gemstones.” However, like scenes from a James Bond movie, I was met at the Kabul airport by armed guards and driven in an armored vehicle to a fortified compound where I stayed and worked for two weeks. If I was to go rogue and head to the emerald mines in the Hindu Kush Mountains, it had to be unofficial and on my own. Doing so was a sleight of hand transition. Upon my departure from the heavily guarded compound, I was escorted by guards in an armored vehicle back to the Kabul airport. Inside the airport my USAID/DAI mission was completed, and we said our “goodbyes.” Moments after they left, an Afghan friend drove up in his dusty vehicle, and we were off to the Hindu Kush Mountains.

gems, beryl, emerald, emerald history, medicinal gems

When the Black Death started to spread throughout Europe following its arrival in 1347, the medical responses, looking for answers to the death and desolation that fell upon the people, were rapid. One of the first medical treatises written on the plague in this period was the Compendium on the epidemic by the college of the Faculty of Parisian Physicians (Compendium de epidemia per collegium Facultatis Medicorum Parisius). It was produced in October 1348, at the request of King Philip VI (1293 – 1350), by physicians from the University of Paris as a collective work explaining the etiology of the disease and proposing prevention and cure regimens, which were largely composed of the consumption of medicines.