gems, beryl, emerald, Egypt, Sikait, archaeology, ancient emerald mining

The periods of Roman and Byzantine domination of Egypt* saw high levels of mining and quarrying in the Eastern Desert. Large quantities of porphyry, granite, gneiss and diorite were quarried at a number of sites (e.g., Mons Porphyrites, Mons Claudianus, and Wadi Barud). There were numerous gold mines, the largest Byzantine example probably being Bir Umm Fawakhir in the Wadi Hammamat. It was also in the Late Roman and Byzantine period that the emeralds of the Eastern Desert began to be quarried on a fairly large scale in the Eastern Desert between Myos Hormos and Berenice, principally in the Sikait-Zubara region (fig. 1). Because of these activities and the trade-routes via Red Sea ports such as Myos Hormos and Berenice, the desert was dotted with roads, watch-towers, way-stations and hydreumata (fortified wells) which attest to the presence of troops.5 The Egyptian emerald mines, which were perhaps first worked as early as the Ptolemaic period (c.332–30 B.C.), are believed to have been one of only two sources of emeralds for Europe and Africa during the Greco-Roman period (the other being the Habachtal mines in Austria).6 Although an uncut emerald has been tentatively identified in a necklace from the Predynastic site of el-Kubaniya, immediately north of Aswan,? such gem-quality beryls do not appear to have been used regularly in Egyptian jewellery until the Roman period, when techniques for polishing the stones probably began to be introduced. The Egyptian mines continued to be exploited until at least the Middle Ages, when Arab writers document the appearance of larger, heavier stones from the Indian subcontinent. In the 16th c., the Spanish conquest of the New World resulted in the export of emeralds from Colombia and Brazil to Europe and Asia on a massive scale, finally eclipsing the trade in Egyptian emeralds. In more recent times, fine emeralds have also been mined in a number of other Old World countries, including Zimbabwe, Zambia, and Pakistan.

gems, jade, jadeite, fei cui, Russia, Broken Bangle

In recent years, the author has received many jadeite jade raw materials from Western Sayan, Russia, and has had the opportunity to study the Western Sayan jadeite jade deposit. Using microscope, electron probe, and X-ray analysis, this paper emphasizes the investigation of ore type, mineral paragenesis, and microfabric of the Western Sayan jadeite jade deposit in Russia, along with a comparison between Western Sayan and Burmese jadeite jade. The research indicates that hydrothermal fluid activity occurred in multiple periods, and that emerald green jadeite jade contains varying amounts of kosmochlor or omphacite, which formed in the latest stage. The Cr₂O₃ content of the Western Sayan jadeite jade deposit is significantly lower than that of the Burmese deposit, resulting in a lower quality of Sayan jadeite jade compared to Burmese. Jadeite jade ore of Western Sayan exhibits spherulitic and packet textures formed by recrystallization, as well as mylonitic and “eyed” structures associated with multiple sets of fractures. It can be concluded that ore-controlling tectonic activity occurred frequently; temperature and pressure varied greatly during active periods, and recrystallization was pronounced.

corundum, History.1, gems

For their aesthetic and symbolic value, gemstones have always been sought out and used by humans. The Mesopotamian tablets, the oldest written records, frequently mention gemstones: lapis lazuli, carnelian… However, due to their rarity, the hard precious stones of Antiquity (diamond, ruby, emerald, sapphire) have been less studied. The examination of the Parthian statuette preserved in the Louvre Museum, an object inlaid with rubies, provided an opportunity for the Laboratory of Research of the Museums of France (LRMF) to implement ion beam analysis methods for in-depth research in the field of historical gemmology. The archaeological piece at the core of this study was discovered in Mesopotamia. Based on typology, it is attributed to the Parthian period and would thus date to the 3rd century BCE. This remarkable object represents the goddess Ishtar, associated with Aphrodite. The statuette is made of alabaster; her eyes and navel are inlaid with a red stone initially thought to be glass (fig. 1). In 1995, during the dossier-exhibition Precious Stones of the Ancient East, from the Sumerians to the Sasanians organized by François Talion at the Louvre Museum, Annie Caubet, curator in charge of the Department of Near Eastern Antiquities, proposed that we study this statuette. The objectives were, on the one hand, to confirm the suggestion of S. Van Roy², who believed these cabochons to be rubies, and on the other hand, to attempt to determine the geographic origin of these gems. The study of the rubies on the Parthian statuette from the Louvre Museum combines optical observation of their inclusions with their geochemical characterization using the PIXE method (with the help of AGLAE). It first confirmed that the red inlays of the eyes and navel are indeed natural rubies. Furthermore, it provided an opportunity to build a compositional database for major ruby deposits. Finally, thanks to statistical analysis, we can propose Burma as the most probable origin of the statuette’s rubies, though Sri Lanka cannot be ruled out. These results, along with recent improvements to the AGLAE accelerator, pave the way for a complementary study to strengthen the attribution and attempt to decide between a Burmese or Sri Lankan origin for these rubies. Indeed, the new extracted beam from AGLAE now makes it possible to focus the beam on an area just 0.03 mm in diameter. This tool is well suited for characterizing the mineral inclusions observed in our study (rutile, zircons, phlogopite…), a key factor for authenticating the paragenesis and, consequently, for tracing the provenance of the gems. These gemstones are evidence of exchange or trade across several thousand kilometers between Mesopotamia and Southeast Asia in the 3rd century BCE. To our knowledge, this is the earliest known use of ruby in this region. This representation of Ishtar is remarkable because it combines influences from three civilizations: Mesopotamia through the deity represented, Greece through its Hellenistic style, and Asia through both the placement (eyes and navel) and the nature of the precious stones.

jade, jadeite, fei cui, Burma, gems

With his eye-catching eyes, Li Yinghao has accumulated more than 30 years of experience in the collection of treasures. Following the best-selling books, Preserving the Value of Jade" and "Differential Emerald," he has devoted himself to his new work. To provide readers with identification of Jade Jade Tips: identify authenticity and inferiority of Cuiyu and its original stone cargo tips, correct folk absurd identification methods and misconceptions, uncover the B-between and C cargo and falsification of tactics. I hope that long-lasting, bright and elegant jade can be treasured by people forever."

alexandrite, beryl, emerald, ruby, sapphire, topaz, biotite, phlogopite, Australia, gems, chrysoberyl, beryl

gems, corundum, quality.10, crown jewels, Austrian crown jewels, spinel, diamond, pearl, beryl, emerald, ivory

The secular and ecclesiastical Treasury at the Hofburg in Vienna keeps outstanding symbols of more than 1000 years of European history, from the insignia and imperial jewels of the Holy Roman Empire to precious relics and robes. Important pieces of this collection are presented in full colour with informative text.

gems, Ukraine, Odessa

The excavation of a Sarmatian burial in Ukraine has provided a new example of a butterfly-pendant necklace and led to a reconsideration of the dating of such objects. In 1982, near the village of Mikhajlovka in the Saratskij district of Ukraine’s Odessa region, the Bugo-Dniester rescue expedition from the Institute of Archaeology in Kiev, led by I.T. Chernyakov, excavated Tumulus No. 3 containing a Sarmatian burial in a wooden coffin. The deceased, a woman aged approximately eighteen to twenty-two years, was found lying on her back with her head oriented to the north-northwest. The burial was richly furnished, including a glass jug and cups, wooden vessels, a toilet box, and various gold and bronze ornaments. Among these items, a rectangular bronze mirror set in a wooden frame with plaster floral decoration has already drawn scholarly attention.

corundum, treatments.6, gems

CMS: The Swiss Gemmological Institute (SSEF) in Basel has found its recent acquisition of a Raman microscope well worth the investment, to judge by this excellent account of its initial applications at this laboratory. Much more accurate, easier to use, and considerably less expensive than its predecessors, the Renishaw Raman microscope at SSEF easily fits on a desktop. It has enabled SSEF staff members to identify CO₂ inclusions in sapphire that are diagnostic of heat treatment, detect and identify fracture fillings in emerald, easily identify mounted gemstones, and characterize specimens with irregular surfaces. It can also distinguish component minerals in many aggregates. The method is nondestructive in all but a few well-documented conditions and works on all types of materials, except those having simple compositions and high symmetry, such as metals and alloys. Raman spectroscopy does require that the user be aware of its limitations and parameters; also, the lack of a large, published database means that each laboratory must obtain many of its own reference spectra from known samples. However, Raman spectroscopy clearly has earned a place of respect among the few high-tech laboratory techniques that have proved indispensable to gemological testing today.

corundum, history.1, quality.10, India.12, Tajikistan.12, spinel, beryl, emerald, ruby, diamond, gems, , Indian lapidary

gems, beryl, emerald, Pakistan, Swat, emerald chemistry

Emerald deposits in Swat, northwestern Pakistan, occurring in talc-magnesite and quartz-magnesite assemblages, have been investigated through stable isotope studies. Isotopic analyses were performed on a total of seven emeralds, associated quartz (seven samples), fuchsite (three samples) and tourmaline (two samples) from the Mingora emerald mines. The oxygen isotopic composition (δ 18O SMOW) of emeralds shows a strong enrichment in18O and is remarkably uniform at + 15.6 ± 0.4‰ (1σ,n = 7). Each of the two components of water in emerald (channel and inclusion) has a different range of hydrogen isotopic composition: the channel waters being distinctly isotopically heavier (δD = −51 to −32‰ SMOW) than the other inclusion waters (δD = −96 to −70‰ SMOW). Similarly the oxygen isotopic compositions of tourmaline and fuchsite are relatively constant (δ 18O = + 13 to + 14‰ SMOW) and show enrichment in18O. Theδ 18O values of quartz, ranging from + 15.1 to + 19.1‰ SMOW, are also high (+ 16.9 ± 1.4‰ 1σ, n = 7). The meanδD of channel waters measured from emerald (−42 ± 6.6‰ SMOW) and that of fluid calculated from hydrous mineralsδDcalculated (−47 ± 7.1‰ SMOW) are consistent with both metamorphic and magmatic origin. However, the close similarity between the measuredδD values of the hydroxyl hydrogen in fuchsite (−74 to −6‰ SMOW) and tourmaline (−84 and −69‰ SMOW) with pegmatitic muscovite and tourmaline suggests that the mineralization was probably caused by modified (18O-enriched) hydrothermal solutions derived from an S-type granitic magma. The variation in the carbon and oxygen isotopic composition of magnesite, locally associated with emerald mineralization, is also very restricted (δ 13 ∼ −3.2 ± 0.7%, PDB;δ 18O ∼ + 17.9 ± 1.27‰ SMOW). On the basis of the isotopic composition of fluid (δ 13C ≈ −1.8 ± 0.7‰ PDB;δ 18O ≈ + 13.6 ± 1.2‰ SMOW calculated for the 250-550°C temperature), it is proposed that the Swat magnesites formed due to the carbonation of previously serpentinized ultramafic rocks by a CO2-bearing fluid of metamorphic origin.